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Critical Thinking for Managers

Jim Accetta MS, CH, CT

Critical thinking involves the questioning of basic ideas, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Along with such questioning, comes a type of shift or reorientation to how one interprets their world, often leading to a change in thinking or behavior or a reaffirmation of a previously held belief, idea, etc. Critical thinking is part of our everyday life. The degree in which we practice such thinking varies from individual to individual, as well as within the individual at various periods of time. The notion of critical thinking as described by Brookfield (1995, 1997) and Vaill (1996) will be discussed below. Each person’s general definition or conception of critical thinking will be discussed followed by the most salient similarities and differences between the two.

Brookfield describes critical thinking as a normal thinking process in adults that involves various phases and identifiable stages in one writing (1997), then identifies nine central themes in another writing (1995). According to Brookfield, critical thinking involves the observation of some difference or contradiction in the world, followed by some thought or appraisal of the event of difference, followed by a period of exploration of new ways to understand or act regarding the observation, then developing an alternative perspective ending with a period of integration of the new perspective or belief into one’s way of being or way of thinking about the world.

Vaill (1996) discusses critical thinking through the perspective of how we live and learn in the world. He describes this learning and living in the world as being part of every person. He identifies humans as living in what he describes as permanent whitewater: “… the complex, turbulent, changing environment in which we are all trying to operate” (p. 4). In living in this environment, we are consistently learning or thinking critically, having to observe, interpret, exercise judgment, make decisions and adjust ourselves and our thinking to live effectively in the world. Vaill identifies seven types of learning that exists as we live and learn in the world, which include self-directed learning, creative learning, expressive learning, feeling learning, on-line learning, continual learning and reflexive learning.

In general, both writers seem to be discussing the same activity; a way that human adults live and think in the world. The two most salient similarities of the writers are how they describe critical thinking as a normal activity of adults and the individuality of the content of such thinking. The differences are in their definitions of critical thinking and their subsequent descriptions of how people think critically; in other words the differences in the content and process of how critical thinking occurs.

Both writers describe critical thinking as a normal thinking process. Inherent in this description is the fact that both state that it is a process. Critical thinking is an activity, something that occurs as we live in the world. Critical thinking involves questioning how the world works; making some sense of the world that leads to behaving in various ways is living in the world. As adults, we do this daily in making day-to-day decisions. Brookfield (1995) states that “practically all adults function in some way as critical thinkers: (p. 384) and that critical thinking is at the core of being a developed person (p. 388). Vaill (1996) describes learning as a way of being as being part of every person “something that goes on all the time and expands into all aspects of a person’s life” (p.43).

Both writers also address the individuality of content and process of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves the internal processing of information regarding the environment. The content and process involved in information processing differs for every person. Such content and process is determined by genetics, family, culture, history, social structure and one’s learning and cognitive patterns; although there are similarities among groups of people, and humans in general, no two people will have the same manner of perceiving the world.

Brookfield (1997) identifies context as a vital role in how one thinks critically. He uses the phrase “contextual awareness” and refers to how history, culture, social structures and other such contexts play a significant role in each individual’s actions, values, beliefs and morals (p. 2). Vaill (p. 44) proposes the same type of individuality when he refers to Kolb; “Learning as a way of being probably encompasses a somewhat different set of attitudes and behaviors for each person, considering our differences of experience, beliefs and values, including cultural norms and taboos, kinds and levels of intelligence and learning styles”. In addition, he states, “The phenomenon appears in every person, since it is a part of the essence of being human, but each individual uniquely experiences and expresses it” (p. 44)

One of the most significant differences of the authors is their definition of critically thinking. Brookfield is direct in his identification of critical thinking. He identifies what he is referring to as critical thinking, as the process of thinking critically. Vaill does not at all use the term critical thinking, instead identifies the process as learning, a way of living in the world. Another significant difference is how the authors do and do not describe the content of and process of thinking critically.

Brookfield’s definitions vary with each of his writings referenced, despite the fact that each reference refers to the same source. In one selection (1997), Brookfield describes two central activities of critical thinking: 1) identifying and challenging assumptions; and 2) exploring and imagining alternatives. In this same source Brookfield describes critical thinking as occurring in stages that follow a normal progression. These stages are: 1) trigger event: some event that causes uncertainty and leads to 2) appraisal: a period of scrutiny and appraisal of the idea, belief or situation, which leads to 3) exploration: a beginning of searching for new ways to explain the uncertainty or discrepancy in ones belief which leads to 4) developing alternative perspectives: developing new ways of thinking to the final stage of 5) integration: “Having decided upon the worth, accuracy and validity of new ways of thinking or living, we begin to find ways to integrate these into the fabric of our lives” (p. 9). In another source Brookfield’s ideas are grouped into nine themes (1995). The 9 themes are more similar to Vaill’s description in that there is no formal progression from one stage to another, but more a group of characteristics of learning in the world or as Brookfield calls the activity, critical thinking.

Vaill identifies types of learning that occur in the world. He does not offer a natural progression or steps in the process, instead directing our attention to types of learning that we as humans do in the world along with a 4-digit code or abbreviation for these learning types. The types are by number all include the first initials of the phrase Learning While Being. These types are identified as: 1) self directed learning (LWB1), 2) creative learning (LWB2), 3) expressive learning (LWB3), 4) feeling learning (LWB4), 5) on-line learning (LWB5), 6) continual learning (LWB6) and 7) reflexive learning (LWB7).

In summary, the similarities are more significant than the differences. Both writers identify salient features of being a developing human in the world; a type of human who thinks, processes information and makes the best or most appropriate behavioral decisions that they perceive at that time.

References

Brookfield, S. D. (1995) What It Means To Think Critically. In J. Thomas
Wren (Ed.), The Leader’s Companion (pp 379-388) New York: The Free Press

Brookfield, S. D. (1997). Recognizing Critical Thinking. In Carlyle, C., Feldman, B. &
Academic Publications. (Eds.), Critical Thinking for the Manager: Selected Readings (pp. 1-14). National-Louis University.

Vaill, P. B. (1996). Learning As A Way of Being. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass Inc.